mh... at first, you have to differ between iwad and pwad
iwads are commercial, those are all:
doom.wad, doom2.wad, plutonia.wad, tnt.wad
(AND heretic.wad, hexen.wad, strife.wad, you can't call these as doom anymore, they are different games, but could be played with a lot doom sourceports too, because hey are based on the doom engine)
pwads are based on them, they use for example the weapons and textures of them
here you can for example download a lot of pwads:
http://www.doomworld.com/idgames/index.php?dir=levels/you can also load more than 1 pwad, for example, 1 pwad for the new maps, 1 pwad for different weapons
doom2.wad is by far the most important pwad
atm more than 90% of all zdaemon servers are running with doom2.wad
where you can buy it... I am not sure about third-party group..
you can buy a download at idsoftware itself:
http://doom.com/games/doom/doom2/index.php?game_section=buyor more nostalgic and usually cheaper at eebay (you will find it)
doom2 is also available on CD, so you don't need a floppy drive

also to play mods you usually need doom2.wad
hard to descripe what a mod is

I think it is like a new game which has more or less sth to do with the original game
for example:
something completly different: (intro till 4:00)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XXdGDs_S86Mand here a well made pwad for plutonia.wad:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hkkIm_IpUv8you see, there are mods in which a lot of time is put into, even today, after 17 years of doom (first video mod was finished a year ago)