Table of Contents
Body Anatomy- Overview, Muscle Terminology, Muscle Anatomy & Physiology, The Three Planes, Direction Terminology.
Kinesiology- Movement System, Muscle Roles, Muscle Contractions, Muscle Fibers, Muscle Levers, Workout General View & Principles.
Physiology- Energy Supply, Aerobic Process.
Sleep - Amount of Sleep, Lack of Sleep.
Workout Routines- General Overview, FBW, Endurance Training, Strength Training.
Flexibility- What is It?, 3 Methods to Develop Passive Fitness Elements (Flexibility), Further Precautions & Emphasis, Training in the Elastic or Plastic Range?
Nutrition- Effects of Nutrition in Various Sport Branches, Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats.
Myth Debunking- Myths: Metabolic Fire, Hunger Control, Body Absorbs Up to 30 Grams Protein, Fasting Causes Muscle Loss.

Body Anatomy

Overview
4 major body parts: Head, Torso, Back, Limbs.
3 major torso parts: Chest, Back, Abdomen.

Muscle Terminology
3 types of muscle tissues exist:

• Muscle Drawn
• Smooth Muscle
• Myocardial (The heart muscle)

Sarcomere- Basic structural unit of the muscle. Myofibril- Long column of sarcomeres.
Muscle drawn is designed of long sarcomere units (Up to 10-12 CM each). Termed "Voluntary muscle", meaning: May be operated by human desire.
Recognition of these muscle types: Skeletal muscles, fast and hard contracting, tiredness is relatively fast.
Smooth muscle is termed "Involuntary muscle", meaning: May not be operated by human desire.
Recognition of these muscle types: Internal organs oriented, very slow and relatively weak contracting, these muscles do not tire (Exemplary: Heart).
The Myocardial is a stand-alone muscle group of 1, since it has a unique trait: Muscle anatomy is "Smooth muscle", however function is "Muscle drawn". Meaning: This specific muscle is built for fast and hard contractions, and yet does not ever tire.

All muscles consist of red and white fibers.
Recognition of 'Red' type fibers- Longer, slower and relatively weaker contractions, ability to maintain strain for a longer time span.
Recognition of 'White' type fibers- Shorter, quicker and relatively harder contractions, ability to maintain strain for a shorter time span.

Muscle Anatomy & Physiology
Hundreds of myofibrils are wrapped in a membrane and an Endomysium (Connective tissue), combining a muscle fiber.
A package of muscle fibers is named Fascicle, which is also wrapped in a Perimysium (Connective tissue). The entire muscle is wrapped in a dense connective tissue named Epimysium, which then links the muscle to the periphery.

How does a muscle operate?
Inside the myofibril exist proteins which operate towards muscle contraction. Among a long list of these proteins:
Myosin, Actin, Tropomyosin, Troponin.
Myosin constructs a 'thick' filament. Consists of 2 myosin motor heads, 4 catalytic cores (One of each head incorporating 2 catalytic cores) and 2 lever arms, the myosin is tied by a coiled-coil rod, which is then attached to the filament. The myosin heads contain ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) and Phosphate, in order to accumulate to ATP (ADP+P = APPP = Adenosine Triphosphate), which is known as the Energy unit within the cell. Actin constructs a 'thin' filament.
More can be seen in this illustrative video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VQ4OMSi6qAg

The Three Planes



Each of the three planes may be interpreted as a linea (Line) in which the body travels upon.

The Sagittal Plane
Named after Sagittarius, resemblance of a bow held vertically: "Arrow Plane".
Divides the body to two sections: Dexter (Right), Sinister (Left). Movements made in the Sagittal plane:

• Flexion
• Extension
• Dorsiflexion (Flexion of the ankle)
• Plantarflexion (Extension of the ankle)

The Coronal Plane
"Frontal Plane".
Divides the body to two sections: Anterior (Frontal), Posterior (Back). Movements made in the Coronal plane:

• Adduction
• Abduction

The Transversal Plane
"Horizontal Plane".
Divides the body to two sections: Superior (Upper), Inferior (Lower). Movements made in the Transversal plane:

• Horizontal Abduction
• Horizontal Adduction
• External Rotation
• Internal Rotation

Direction Terminology
"Proximalis"- Body part is closer to the body center. Example: "The Humerus bone is closer to the body center than the Radius bone. Meaning it is Proximalis (English relation: Proximity)."
"Distalis"- Body part is farther from the body center. Example: "The Tibia bone is farther from the body center than the Femur bone. Meaning it is Distalis (English relation: Distance)."
"Lateralis"- Body part is farther from the body Median Axis (Sagittal Plane being that axis). Example: "The Middle Deltoid is farther from the Median Axis than the Clavicula. Meaning it is Lateralis (English relation: Lateral).
"Medialis"- Body part is closer to the body Median Axis (English relation: Medial).
"Superficialis"- Body part is closer to the skin. Example: "The facial muscles are closer to the skin than the facial bones. Meaning they are Superficialis (English relation: Superficiality).
"Profundus"- Body part is deeper.
"Contralateral"- This term is used when one wishes to compare 2 body parts which exist parallel to each other, each one in a different section of a certain plane.
"Ipsilateral"- This term is used when one wishes to compare 2 body parts which exist on the same section of a certain plane.
"Cranialis"- Across the Sagittal plane, the closer (Consequently- Higher) body part to the skull, the more 'Cranial' it is (English relation: Cranium).
"Caudalis"- Across the Sagittal plane, the closer (Consequently- Lower) body part to the coccyx, the more 'Caudal' it is.
"Dorsalis"- Body part exists in the back area of the body.
"Ventralis"- Body part exists in the front area of the body.

Kinesiology

Movement System
Incorporates 3 Sub-Systems:

• Passive system- Bones, capsules, ligaments.
• Active system- Muscles.
• Nervous system- Peripheral.

Planes of movement: See Anatomy section.

Muscle Roles

• Agonist- Prime mover, main movement is conducted through this muscle. Directly responsible for movement application.
• Antagonist- Inhibitor, the muscle which performs the exact opposite movement to that of the Agonist. While agonist is contracting, the antagonist is automatically loose and enables movement of the agonist (One muscle must remain loose for the other to contract).
• Synergist- Helper mover, assists in the movement of the agonist, applies in parallel to it.
• Fixator- Stabilizer, these muscles prevent movement of the joint where the acting movement of the agonist and synergists takes place. These muscles also work in an 'Isometric contraction' (More on this later).

Parameters to determining the "Agonist":
-Largest mass muscle within the muscle group in relation to the joint / movement. "Size does matter".
-Muscle containing the farthest 'Insertion' (Most distal) within the muscle group, in the movement axis.
-Architectonic structure of the muscle.
-Direction of the muscle fibers (More on this later).

Muscle Contractions
Contraction types are divided into 3 categories:

Concentric Contraction- "Con- Towards" the center. Muscle is shortening while contracting and overcoming the resistance factor (Weight).
Eccentric Contraction- "Ecc- Exit" the center. Muscle is lengthening while contracting and is overwhelmed by the resistance factor.
Isometric Contraction- Greek- "Having equal measurement'. Muscle is contracting yet neither shortens nor lengthens. No movement in the joint during Isometric contraction. Kinetic forces between muscle and resistance are equivalent.

Speed:Tension Curve
Concentric-wise, as the speed of the maneuver is greater, the muscle develops less power.
Eccentric-wise, as the speed of the maneuver is greater, the muscle develops more power.
Caution: This information must not be taken lightly. True, faster eccentric speed does increase strength, but up to a logical extent. In fact, the entire repetition (Concentric+Eccentric) time span should be at least 6 seconds total, which would mean a very slow operation. In ratio terms, concentric contraction develops X strength, while eccentric contraction develops X+40% strength, and isometric contraction develops X+10% strength. It is recommended to divide the 6 seconds repetition period to 2 sections: 2 seconds concentric / 4 seconds eccentric. For eccentric trainings (Must be done with a partner who can concentrically lift your weight back up, in order for you to train in an eccentric manner alone), one should use the entire 6 seconds period, while using 120%-130% RM1 (The reason this is possible is because the trainee does not perform the concentric contraction of his RM1 at all, and is able to lift more as a result).

Muscle Fibers
3 types of muscle fibers exist:
Slow Twitch (ST or 'Type I') fibers, Fast Twitch (FT or 'Type II') fibers, which are further divided into Fast Twitch A (FT-A or 'Type IIA') and Fast Twitch B (FT-B or 'Type IIB') fibers. One may recall 'Red' and 'White' type fibers explained earlier, and relate these groups to them according to the following parameters:


2 types of muscle fiber constructions exist:

Parallel/Bellied Fibers- Exist parallel to the joint, a straight line. 100% power from muscle strength is redirected to the tendon.
Feathered Fibers- Exist diagonally to the going, in an oblique line. 86% power from muscle strength is redirected to the tendon.

Even though parallel fibers seem to produce more strength, muscles with the oblique structure are more powerful.
How so? For every square inch of feathered fibers, there are more fibers than those of parallel fiber muscles. Hence, feathered muscles have myofibrils, and therefore more sarcomeres and as a result- More cell ATP/Energy overall.

Muscle Levers
Lever- "Hard body revolving around an axis".

Terminology:
A- Axis. Around it the movement is performed.
F- Force. The point of which force is applied, the Insertion point of the muscle.
W- Weight. The resistance applied against the muscle strength.
AF- Axis Force. The vertical distance between the axis and the application of the force.
AW- Axis Weight. The vertical distance from the movement axis to the point of resistance.

Kinetic force: Force around an axis is applied as such- As long as weight X is farther from the axis, the force required to overcome it will increase since the kinetic force of the weight will increase as well.
'Swing' example: 2 weight sources are being put on a swing, contralaterally. One weighs 50KG, while the other weighs 100KG. Both weights maintain a steady and flat swing.
How so? The swing bar on the side of the 50KG weight source has the length of 2 meters, while the other bar has the length of 1 meter.
Conclusion: The longer the bar (Or, the farther the weight is from the axis), the heavier the weight source (Or, the more kinetic force the weight then applies).

Types of levers
Type I Lever: FAW.
The Axis is in between the Force and the Weight, thus making both forces of equal kinetic deliverance, there is no advantage to either side.
AF=AW. Example: Swing, Scales.

Type II Lever: AWF.
The Weight is in between the Axis and the Force, thus giving an advantage of kinetic force to the Force.
AF>AW. The muscle is at a mechanic advantage.

Type III Lever: AFW.
The Force is in between the Axis and the Weight, thus giving an advantage of kinetic force to the Weight.
AW>AF. The muscle is at a mechanic disadvantage.

Hint: Most muscles in the body work under Type III Lever, meaning at a mechanic disadvantage.

Workout General View & Principles

5 Elements of Physical Fitness
Force + Intensity + Time = FIT.
The 5 elements are as follows: Strength, endurance, speed, flexibility and coordination. The major principles are the first 3.

General/Specific Training
General- Major population. No specific orientation.
Specific- Activity towards (Mainly) 1 dominant sportive element (Endurance, Strength, Volume).

Relative/Absolute Power
Relative- In accordance with body weight exclusively, in reference to how good/bad a person is. Most light weight, small mass trainees have far more relative strength than those who have more weight and more mass.
Absolute- In accordance with outside weight source

The Additive Load Principle
To improve, one must keep in mind to raise load constantly.
Quantity training (Volume) x Intensity training (Strength) = Load.

The Gradualness Principle
To improve, one must raise the loads within a pattern of progression.

The Inertia Principle
Improvement is majorly reliant on training consistency, because physical fitness does not last.

The Specificity Principle
To improve a specific part of training, one must exercise in a fashion that would relate to that part of training the most.

The Variety Principle
In order to consistently improve the trainee's physical fitness, one must change the actions involved and their style (Content, methods and loads) at every given time period.

The 3 Phenomenons
Three phenomenons are constantly accompanying every type of physical training. These are:

The Diminishing Returns/Effects- As one becomes better at a certain activity, the less load improvements will occur over time, in relation to starting loads.
Example: A man has started running 1 KM for the first time, and finished after 10 minutes. After 2 week, and 10 more running sessions, the man has effectively reduced his time to 7.5 minutes. After another 2 months, the man has effectively reduced his time to 6 minutes. After 3 more months, the man has effectively reduced his time to 5.5 minutes.

The Delayed Effect- The prime improvement as a result of a specific training does not show immediately after workout has been finished. The commemorative date of prime physical improvement is personal and dependent on the intensity of the single training sessions, their frequency and their proximity to one another.
Example: Professional athletes, in readiness to a contest, reduce their Additive Load trainings to allow the Compensatory Loads (The fruits of the Additive Load- New-found strength, volume, speed, etc..) to achieve prime improvement just in time for the contest.

The Reverse Effect- This phenomenon describes a process opposite to that of the compensatory loads, which begins immediately with the end of the training session.
When the session has ended, the body is retracts back to its normal lack of load and training-stimulation, and a reduction in the ability to perform physical actions becomes apparent.
Conclusion: There is no accumulation or preservation of physical fitness in the long term without training consistency. In order for a training program to be efficient, it must be both consistent and sequential/continuous.

Strength Components & Application Angles
Upon any and all exercises, the joint in which the action is performed is acting as an axis, around which the muscles rotate in a contraction. 2 major components exist when calibrating strength applied, and strength required, for the completion of the movement.

Strength Components
Vertical Component- The rotary component.
Horizontal Component- The non-rotary component, which is divided to 2 groups:
-Stabilizing Component- Refers to weight/resistance compressing the distal bone of the joint towards the proximal one.
-Dislocating Component- Refers to weight/resistance pulling the distal bone of the joint away from the proximal one.

Rotary Component- Element of the muscle strength used to create the movement. Only an element vertical to the bone we wish to reach will cause movement.
Stabilizing or Dislocating Component- Does not create the movement, but used to maintain the weight/resistance upon the joint itself.

Application Angles



The angle created between the muscle tendon and the bone, causing changes in strength output and performance

-Upon 90 degrees between tendon and bone: All strength is being used to create movement (100% Rotary Component).
-Upon X>90 degrees between tendon and bone: Most strength is being used to create dislocation (Accumulating Dislocation Component).
-Upon X<90 degrees between tendon and bone: Most strength is being used to create compression (Accumulating Stabilizing Component).
Example:
-Elbow Curl- Upon beginning the exercise and holding the weight at hand, elbow is completely extended (100% Dislocation Component), the application angle is nearing 0 degrees. Amount of strength required to operate force in these angles is extreme (The smaller the angle, the more power is required to perform moment). As component becomes more rotary (X nearing 90 degrees), amount of strength required to operate force becomes gradually smaller.
As far as levers (See earlier sections) are concerned, at a 90 degrees angle between muscle tendon and bone, the weight resistance (AW) is the farthest from the joint, and applies the most kinetic force required to overcome it, meaning this is the angle which develops the muscle the most, in all terms.
The same example can be seen on shoulder press, only then the starting position / peak movement creates 100% Stabilizing Component (Compressive state).

When force is being applied on an axis, a moment is being created.
Moment- Force which causes an object to rotate around an axis. Outer Moment is force applied via gravity or other external resistance. Inner Moment is force applied via muscles.
Force Moment = Strength * Vertical Distance of weight from line of action.
The formula is: M = S*D.

Example:
Outer Moment (Weight)- 50n (n= Newtons)
Distance of Weight- 0.35 meters
Muscle force distance- 0.03 meters
Formula is applied:
M=S(50n)*D(0.35) = 17.5
In order for the muscle to provide such kinetic force, it will be need to perform: 17.5/0.03 = 583.3(333) Newtons.

Movement / Muscle Tables




Physiology

Energy Supply
Creating all types of action requires energy, which is supplied by food. Food may be divided to 3 major Macro-nutrients: Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats. These provide the energy and building blocks for metabolism, anabolism and catabolism purposes.

Upon breaking apart these Macro-nutrients, the resulting GDP breakdowns are as follows: Carbohydrates (Glucose), Amino Acids (Protein), Fatty Acids (Fats). These breakdowns are then absorbed from the digestive system to the bloodstream. From there, they are carried to all bodily tissues, crossing the cell membrane and are stored inside the cytoplasm. The energy stored inside the Glucose/AA/FA molecules is used to recharge ATP molecules.

ATP/ADP
Adenosine Triphosphate. Built of Adenine and attached to the 1' carbon atom of a pentose sugar, and consists of 3 Phosphate covalent links, the ATP is used to release energy and provide with ability to perform action.
The way it is done is by causing a breakdown in the third P(Phosphate) link, cause E(Energy) to be released. Once an ATP molecule has been broken, it becomes ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate). This would mean A-P-P-P Release E / Forgo 3rd P A-P-P +P (The third Phosphate is now 'floating' and does not belong to the molecule).
In order to recharge ADP back to ATP, the cell uses the GDP breakdowns (Mentioned above) to restore the third P link.
The ATP cell storage pool is extremely small and contains enough energy supply to last 2-3 seconds at maximum resistance. ATP does not cross cell membrane, meaning it can neither enter nor leave the cell, which would mean the cell must build it and recharge it on its own.

CrP
Inside the cytoplasm there exists another energy-enriched molecule named Creatine Phosphate. The CrP cell storage pool (In ratio to the ATP one) is 3-5 times larger. The cell cannot use the CrP molecule as a direct power source, however the energy stored inside the CrP molecule can be transferred and through it, to recharge the ADP molecules, and turn them once again to ATP.
The amount of CrP is enough to recharge the ATP for another 6-7 seconds, accumulating in a total of ATP+CrP muscle strength of approximately 10 seconds maximum.
In order to continue muscle strain, the body turns to ATP recharge through a process named "Anaerobic Glycolysis".
Glycolysis is the process of breaking down Glycogen or Glucose. Anaerobic is a term for a process which sustains itself without the use of air and the oxygen within it.

Lactic Acid
During anaerobic glycolysis, Glucose is broken down to Lactic Acid, while extracting energy used for ATP recharge.
Rise of Lactic Acid inside the cytoplasm causes a reduction in the glycolysis pace, due to damage caused to the PFK (PhosphoFructoKinase) enzyme. In addition, cell acidity increment also causes damage to the muscle contraction mechanism itself. As a result, tiredness is sensed and cell work pace decrement occurs.
Lactic acid is removed from the cytoplasm to the bloodstream by Diffusion (Movement of concentrations between 2 spaces, assuming one part has too little or too much of the specific substance. In this case, lactic acid). After doing so, lactic acid is then countered by 3 methods:

• Neutralization by having acid meet with basis substance (In this case, Sodium Bicarbonate [NaHCO3]), which is found in the blood itself.
• Breaking the lactic acid itself in the presence of oxygen and producing energy. This occurs in less currently functioning tissues of the body.
• Turning lactic acid to Glucose, while investing energy. This process occurs solely in the 'Cori Circle' which is in the Liver.

During intensive strain, the rate of lactic acid removal is slow than its production. As of such, this results in accumulating concentrations of lactic acids and within 2-3 minutes, the blood cannot receive anymore lactic acid from active cells. In this situation, tiredness rises and activity pace is reduced.
Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation (Or OBLA) refers to the maximum activity pace which can be sustained without further increasing lactic acid concentrations in the bloodstream. Upon reaching OBLA, lactic acid in the blood reaches 4milimol per liter, compared to 1.5miliol per liter during rest.
"Half Life Cycle" of lactic acid is approximately 20 minutes. Best recovery method is Active Recuperation, of approximately 35%-50% of maximum ability. This type of recovery maintains relatively high bloodstream and thus makes it easier to remove lactic acid. In addition, during light physical activity, lactic acid is able to be used as an energy source for muscle operation.



Note
The prime energy for all bodily activities is being produced while bloodstream acidity is below OBLA, and is being produced via Macro-nutrients (See earlier sections).
Glucose is broken down inside the cytoplasm into a Pyruvic Acid. During such process, 2*ATP molecules have been created. The pyruvic acid enters the Mitochondrion and continues to break down in the 'Crebs Circle'. This process produces 2*ATP + 6*CO2. The pyruvic acid then continues to break down in the 'Electrons Transport Chain', further producing 32*ATP and 6*H2O (In the presence of 6*O2 [Attachment of 12 hydrogen atoms to 6 carbon atoms]).

Aerobic Process
As was discussed, the aerobic process consists of the same stages the Anaerobic-Lactic process (See above) does, however it holds 3 major advantages:
-Aerobic process byproducts are only Carbon Dioxide and (Metabolic) water, which do not interfere with metabolism, unlike lactic acid, which does, and is the byproduct of anaerobic lactic process.
-The efficiency of producing energy during the aerobic process (Charging as much as 36 ATP from 1 Glucose molecule) is enormously bigger than that of the anaerobic-lactic process (Charging only 2 ATP from 1 Glucose molecule).
-The aerobic process is able utilize all 3 macro nutrients to restore energy (Carbohydrates, Fats and Proteins), while anaerobic-lactic can only use Carbohydrates.

The aerobic process enforces a presence of oxygen in a ratio of 3.5ml/1KG/Minute during state of rest. Oxygen consumption rises as long as the intensity of the activity rises, up to a maximal point named 'VO2 Max'.
Aerobic recovery in a state of which Carbohydrate resources in the Liver and muscles has been drained is very long, and may very well last 48 hours.

The process of recovery and rejuvenation regarding ATP resources are conducted only via the aerobic process, and as of such it is important to maintain aerobic fitness not only for aerobic trainees, but for anaerobic trainees as well, who require a shorter and more efficient recovery time span from strain.

Sleep
Too many factors revolve around such a huge topic, therefore I will concentrate around effects of sleep / lack of sleep in regards to Physiology.

Amount of Sleep
True amount can only be deciphered in comparison with an individual's 'Circadian Rhythm', therefore there is no absolute amount. The general population overview ranges between 6 and 10 hours of sleep per night session. Sleep is not accumulative, therefore sleeping 3 hours a night, and then 9 hours the next night does not equate to 2 nights of 6 hours sleep, each.
Other variations involving amount of sleep can be determined by individual's age, prior day activity. A person's biggest sleep episode could bring little to no benefit if it was made during the 'Wrong' time of day. Recommendation stands that one should sleep at the very least for 6 hours before the lowest body temperature. That could be inferred from post-middle-sleep-episode occurrence of the following circadian markers, before waking up:

• Maximum concentration of the hormone melatonin.
• Minimum core body temperature.

Lack of Sleep



This section has been taken from Wikipedia, and after confirming it with a professor from my academy, I will give it credit and post it here.

A University of California, San Diego psychiatry study of more than one million adults found that people who live the longest self-report sleeping for six to seven hours each night. Another study of sleep duration and mortality risk in women showed similar results. Other studies show that "sleeping more than 7 to 8 hours per day has been consistently associated with increased mortality," though this study suggests the cause is probably other factors such as depression and socioeconomic status, which would correlate statistically. It has been suggested that the correlation between lower sleep hours and reduced morbidity only occurs with those who wake after less sleep naturally, rather than those who use an alarm.
Main health effects of sleep deprivation, indicating impairment of normal maintenance by sleep

Researchers at the University of Warwick and University College London have found that lack of sleep can more than double the risk of death from cardiovascular disease, but that too much sleep can also be associated with a doubling of the risk of death, though not primarily from cardiovascular disease. Professor Francesco Cappuccio said, "Short sleep has been shown to be a risk factor for weight gain, hypertension, and Type 2 diabetes, sometimes leading to mortality; but in contrast to the short sleep-mortality association, it appears that no potential mechanisms by which long sleep could be associated with increased mortality have yet been investigated. Some candidate causes for this include depression, low socioeconomic status, and cancer-related fatigue... In terms of prevention, our findings indicate that consistently sleeping around seven hours per night is optimal for health, and a sustained reduction may predispose to ill health."

Furthermore, sleep difficulties are closely associated with psychiatric disorders such as depression, alcoholism, and bipolar disorder.[30] Up to 90% of adults with depression are found to have sleep difficulties. Dysregulation found on EEG includes disturbances in sleep continuity, decreased delta sleep and altered REM patterns with regard to latency, distribution across the night and density of eye movements.

Workout Routines

General Overview
Prior to beginning any sort of workout, be it a person who wishes to simply stay healthy, lose weight, become stronger, become bigger (Hypertrophy), or even dedicate his life to athleticism, everyone starts from the same ground point.

Even though every person is an individual, with different genetics, effects and progress, quantity is never a factor when beginning to workout for the first time.
The three major specific workouts revolve around: Muscle Endurance, Muscle Strength, Muscle Volume. However, as said earlier, one must begin at the very start and realize he will need to generalize his workouts in order to achieve poise, structure, technique, stability, flexibility and muscle familiarity to the various movements and physical training which can be found at every gym / workout stadium, and even outside activity. The FBW workout is the perfect plan for every beginner. Any person found adequate should perform the FBW routine for a period of 6 months prior to any specific training.
What categorizes a beginner?
- A person who has never been to a gym, nor has been familiarized with resistance training of any sort.
- A person who has been injured and has not performed any strength training for the past 3 months.
- A person who has not performed an FBW routine.

One could be at the gym for 10 years, and still be a beginner.

Overtraining
Overtraining is a state of body and mind which results in reduction of physical ability, due to massive training loads during a prolonged time span, without proper rest periods.

Overtraining characteristics:
- Chronic tiredness.
- General tiredness during workouts and in between workouts.
- Lack of physical ability to withstand previous work loads.
- Higher than usual HR (Heart Rate) during rest, during given strain and during recovery.
- Difficulty in recovering from post-strain.
- Continuous loss of appetite, followed by unhealthy weight drops.
- Feeling of discomfort and muscle aching.
- Sleep disorders.
- Frequent dizziness.
- Reduction in motivation to train and compete.
- Increased likelihood to catch an infectious disease.
- Menstrual cycle disorders for women.
- Reduction of male hormone 'Testosterone' level.

How to avoid overtraining:
- Dividing proper loads within the workout plan.
- Controlled and gradual rise in activity level.
- Allowing proper recovery / rest time periods.
- Proper lifestyle (Nutrition, sleeping hours and daily agenda involving rests).
- Variation of the workout plan and combining routine-breaking / fun activities.
- Tracking any and all change in trainee's physical and behavioral functions at all times.

FBW
'Full Body Workout', this workout spreads across the entire body parts and allows for enough strength training exercises to help train the body as a whole. This workout should be spread across 3 times a week, with a recommended rest of 48 hours per workout (Usually termed "Yes day, No day"). The muscle groups are written in order of size (Big / Medium / Small):
(B) Chest, Legs, Back
(M) Shoulders
(S) Front Arm, Rear Arm
Related muscle groups: Adbomen, Spine Erectors.

Big muscle groups should be given 2-3 exercises, with 3 sets each, 8 repetitions per set.
Medium muscle groups should be given 2 exercises, with 2 sets each, 10-12 repetitions per set.
Small muscle groups should be given 1 exercise, with 1-2 sets each, 12-15 repetitions per set.
The abdomen and spine erectors should be given 3 sets each, 15-20 repetitions per set set.

Endurance Training- Training the Aerobics System
Endurance
- The ability to maintain activity for a prolonged period of time, to resist tiredness and recovery quickly from physical strain.
- The ability to withstand weariness during sportive strain.
- The ability to maintain a given level of performance for the most extensive time span as possible.
- The ability to perform physical activity, which activates large muscle groups, at the quickest pace possible, in relation with a given distance or time chapter.

Types of Endurance
Local Endurance- Refers to the state when the working muscles constitute less than 1/6 of total skeletal muscles.
Peripheral Endurance- Refers to the state when the working muscles constitute more than 1/6 of total skeletal muscles.
Endurance Ranges- Short [10-90 seconds], Medium [Up to 10 minutes], Prolonged [Over 10 minutes].
Endurance Affecting Variables-

• Type of Strain
• Duration of Strain
• Magnitude/Intensity of Strain
• Frequency of Strain

Heart Rate- Workout Intensity Indicator
Pulse- The rate in which the heart beats. Pulse is a physiological indicator which provides large information regarding body's reaction to strain. As long as the intensity of the workout is higher, so will the pulse be equally higher.

MHR (Maximum Heart Rate)- The highest possible heart rate achievable during maximal strain. For general knowledge of how what is an individual's MHR, a simple yet effective formula stands:
220-Age=MHR (For men)
226-Age=MHR (For women)

Rest Pulse- Pulse which is measured during periods of rest. Pure rest pulse measurements best be taken during mornings (While waking up), and before getting out bed. Rest pulse is easily effected by the slightest pressure, excitement and other factors. One must remain calm and serene while performing this test for an accurate result.

Pulse Check Areas-
Objective Methods- Wrist, Jugular vein (Located at the side base of the neck). Measure up to 10-15 seconds and multiply by 6 or 4 accordingly (10*6/15*4).
A pulse indicator is reliable and accurate as well.
Subjective Methods- 'Borg Ladder'. A person is given a chart and is asked to rate the level of difficulty (6-20).
Instructor's Evaluation- The instructors evaluates the level of difficulty based on face color, breathing and talking abilities.

Endurance Workouts
Flow Workouts- Training sessions being conducted in a fluent manner while preserving a relatively low to medium intensity level. Prime feature of these workouts is the volume of the largest workout within them (The longest period of time held/reached under constant strain).

Goals:

• Improving aerobic endurance
• Improving anaerobic threshold
• Neutralizing health-hazard elements
• Recovery workouts

Wide-Flow Workouts- Training sessions being conducted at a low intensity level than that of the anaerobic threshold.
For a trained person, the average heart rate during workout will be about 70%-80% of MHR (About 55% of maximal oxygen consumption (MOC)).
For a non-trained person, the average heart rate during workout will be about 60-65% of MHR (About 45% of maximal oxygen consumption (MOC)).

Intense-Flow Workouts- Training sessions being conducted at a level of intensity close to the anaerobic threshold of the trainee.
For a trained person, the average heart rate will be about 80% of MHR (About 70% of MOC).
For a non-trained person, the average heart rate will be about 70% of MHR (About 55% of MOC).

Interval Workouts- A method based on splitting distance of travel to extreme strain periods (Strain intervals), which are being conducted intermediately with resting/recovery designed periods (Recovery intervals).

Advantages of Interval Workouts:

• Main advantage is the ability to perform a significantly high intensity activity, which was not able to be performed in a fluent manner.
• Operating and training additional Motor Units (In a higher hierarchy), thus improving their aerobic fitness and reducing reliance on anaerobic-lactic energtic sources.
• Improvement in removal of lactic acid.
• Bigger energetic output during both strain and recovery periods.
• Improving the mental ability to withstand sense of pain and strain appearing at intensive activities.
• Prevention of boredom- Constitutes a routine-breaker for monotony found in flow-type workouts.

Interval Workout Variables:
Duration of strain interval- Time span of every extreme activity chapter.
Intensity of interval- Activity pace, the HR during the given activity (High intensity = Strain interval- Duration is short and vice versa).
Number of intervals.
Duration of recovery interval.

Field Tests
Advantages:
- Simulates competition conditions and enforces coping with upcoming limitations expected in competitions.
- Large number of test subjects may be examined at once, in order to save time and equally set the conditions of the examination for all trainees.
- These tests are simple to operate and do not require expensive and sophisticated accessory/assessment equipment.

Disadvantages:
- Inability to control the environment- Weather conditions, noise, etc.
- Group field tests reveals the subjects to influence of numerous environmental effects, which on occasion deviate the trainees from their true potential.

Strength Training
Physical definitions:
- Force is everything that allows body of mass to accelerate.
- Interaction (Pull/Push) between two bodies which can cause variation in their movements.

*Concerning workouts- The ability of muscles to overcome outer resistance.

Elements Affecting Power/Strength Development Abilities:

• Tension Longitude
• Type of Lever (See above sections)
• Application Angle (See above sections)
• Muscle Structure (Feathered/Parallel)
• Tension Speed.
• Type of Contraction.
• Density of Stimulation.
• Unique Anatomic Structures.
• Type of fibers.
• Width

Types of Strength
Absolute Strength- Overall weight/resistance from an outer source which the muscle can overcome.

Relative Strength- Body weight as the only weight/resistance source.

Maximum Strength- The highest weight which the muscle can overcome X times. Also termed "Repetition Maximum (RM)". The ability to lift a given weight only once indicates of RM1.

Explosive Strength- The ability to overcome a sub-maximum resistance quickly.

Endurance Strength- The ability to operate at a sub-maximum load for a prolonged duration of time.

Resistance/Strength Types of Training
Weight Training- Use of resistance means such as machinery and free weights to develop strength and muscle endurance. Numbers of repetitions, sets, resting periods and workout intensity are being determined according to specific goals.

Powerlifting- 3 course training competition: Squat, Bench Press and Deadlift.

Weightlifting- Use of free weights in competitions of two styles: Pushing and Swinging.

Strength Affecting Variables-

• Repetition- Number of actions at each set.
• Set- Number of repetitions in a fluent manner at a given exercise.
• Rest- Time chapter which is given to recover between sets, exercises and rotations.
• Strain Intensity- Expressed as a given % taken from RM1.
• Number of Rotations- Rotation is a series of exercises which are applied in a specific order.
• Frequency of Workouts- Number of workouts being performed during a week.
• Pace/'Rhythm'- Movement speed of each repetition.

Emphasis When Planning Strength Training
- Traditional recommendations are to perform 3 weekly exercise routines for the major population (People whom sole interest is to maintain health and slightly improving physical fitness).
- Researches which deal with elderly strength trainees indicate a frequency of twice to four times a week as sufficient in terms of developing strength.
- Preference to perform a full body workout (FBW), especially for beginning older trainees.

The Duration-
Duration describes the time of each workout routine. A longer workout is not necessarily a better workout. For a trainee who works with a quality workout plan, long training session is not required. In fact, older people are advised to avoid long training sessions, which could increase the risk of injury as a result of increased weariness.
The recommended duration for the older age strength trainees ranges between 20-45 minutes per workout (This time span refers to pure workout. The actual workout session can reach 1-1.5 hours). In fact, one must strive to achieve a 20 minute workout but not to exceed 45 minutes. An average of 30 minutes seems sufficient.

The Exercises-
Exercises can be defined as multi-joint, meaning they involve several joints while performing the action.
Examples: Bench press, Shoulder press, Squat. These exercise may also be termed "Compound Exercises".
Exercise can also be defined as uni-joint, meaning they involve only 1 joint while performing the action.
Examples: Elbow flexion/curl, Elbow extension, Knee extension. These exercises may also be termed "Isolated Exercises".

An adult strength workout plan should focus around compound exercises. One need not exclude isolated exercises, however these should not constitute as the major workout focus. In addition, one should prefer (At least at his/her first stages of familiarization of strength training) machinery over free weights, technique weights (Relatively low weight loads) and safety. With progress, one should involve free weight access, correlating with the level of proficiency and physical fitness of the adult trainee.

The Number of Exercises-
Recommendation- Up to 2 exercises per muscle group are deemed appropriate. It is important to note, that by combining compound exercises such as Squat, which simultaneously operate a number of muscle groups, the need for isolated exercises is diminished for those muscle groups.

The Order of Exercises and Muscle Groups-
In case the trainee performs both compound and isolated exercises in the same workout, it is recommended to perform the compound ones before the isolated ones.
In addition, every workout should begin with the larger muscle groups (Chest, Back, Legs) before smaller muscle groups (Arms, Shoulders, Calves).
Order of exercise performance:
- Strong before weak.
- Technical exercises first.
- Multi-joint before uni-joint.
- Large muscle before small muscle.

Applying The Specificity Principle in Strength Training-
- Focusing around the muscle group which operates at the specific sportive activity.
- The pattern of travel/movement which characterizes performance.
- The speed of travel/movement which is an indicator to proficiency.
- Type of contraction (Con/Ecc/Iso) which characterizes muscle activity to proficiency.
- Focusing on angles relevant to trainee's needs.

The Sets-
Studies point an improvement of muscle strength in a number of sets which ranges between 1-3. In accordance with current recommendations, one should begin with 1 set per each exercise and in according to trainee's needs and abilities to raise that number to 3 sets, at most. An average of 2 sets is sufficient for the general population. A rest of 1-2 minutes in between sets is recommended and dependent on work load.

The Intensity-
The intensity, which means a given resistance that needs to be overcome, is the element found by most researchers as the most important variable in order to achieve significant improvement in muscle functions and strength. Even though it is not always so, the importance of work load as strength improving factor is well documented by the trainee. One could express the work load as a % given from his personal RM1. Studies indicate a range of 65%-75% of RM1 as the most adequate range to improving strength among adult trainees. Even though studies have also shown an even greater improvement in greater work loads (80%+), it is recommended to train at aforementioned work load ranges, to prevent risk of injury.

The Repetitions-
Repetitions refer to the number of times a trainee performs a full action/movement at a given exercise. An reverse ratio exists between repetitions and work load, such in a way that as higher the work load, the fewer the repetitions. According to recommendations aforementioned, one should train at a work load of 65-75% of RM1, meaning a number of repetitions ranging between 10-15 repetitions up to muscle tiredness. One could find these percentages by a simple method of trial & error.

The Goals-
Muscle Endurance- The ability to operate at a sub-maximum work load for a prolonged period of time.

Hypertrophy- Extending the width volume of the muscle.

Maximal Strength- The highest weight which the muscle could overcome once (RM1).

Explosive Strength- The ability to overcome sub-maximum resistance quickly.

Training to Develop Muscle Endurance:

• Number of Repetitions: 20-30.
• Strain Intensity: 40%-60% of RM1.
• Rest Period: 1-2 minutes.
• Pace of Performance: Medium.

Applying "Accumulative Work Load" principle:
- First stage- Adding a rotation (Of set 1).
- Second stage- Fluent number of sets of the given exercise (Double set, Triple set).
- Third stage- Raise resistance, shorten rest period, increase weekly workouts frequency.

Training to Develop Hypertrophy:

• Number of Repetitions: 6-20.
• Strain Intensity: 60%-85% of RM1.
• Rest Period: 1-2 minutes.
• Pace of Performance: Slow.

Training to Develop Recruitment of Motor Units:

• Number of Repetitions: 1-5.
• Strain Intensity: 90%-100% of RM1.
• Rest Period: 2-5 minutes.
• Pace of Performance: Slow.

Training to Develop Explosive Strength:

• Number of Repetitions: 6-10.
• Strain Intensity: 40%-70% of RM1.
• Rest Period: 2-5 minutes.
• Pace of Performance: Immediate.

Flexibility
Flexibility- What is It?
Definition- The ability of an organ to move freely across the range of movement existing in the joint.

Elements affecting range of movement:
- Genetics, age, sex, joint structure, connective tissues.
- Range of movement is measured with a Goniometer and is indicated by degrees.
- Range of movement is specific to the given joint.
- Active connective tissue (Muscle) and passive connective tissue (Tendons, Ligaments, Capsules, Skin).

Connective tissues are able to:
- Shorten, maintain their length and lengthen.
- A shortened or lengthened tissue for a prolonged period of time will lose its overall length and potential of stretching.

Reasons of sustaining injury within the movement range:
Prolonged fixation, lack of movement, prolonged stabled position ('Couch Potatoes'), habit of limited range movement.

Limited range movements are common:
At duo-joint muscles- Knee flexors, Calves.
At uni-joint muscles- Neck extenders, Spine erectors, Waist.

Active movement range:
Expresses the number of degrees attained as a result of antagonist muscles activity which pass over the joint.

Passive movement range:
Expresses the number of degrees attained in the joint as a result of external force operating the joint.
No muscle involvement exists in muscles related to the joint.
Passive range is 8% larger than active range.

Changes in flexibility as a result of age differences:
- Determining flexibility is done at the ages of 6-7.
- Maximum potential fulfillment of flexibility is reached and done at the age of 12.

Reduction of flexibility as a result of:
- Reduction in elasticity of ligaments, muscles, connective tissues (Collagen).
- Reduction in synovial liquid quantity (Existing in joint capsules, mainly).
- Development of stability malfunctions.
- Prolonged sitting and lack of physical activity.
- Lack of coordination between skeletal growth and muscle lengthening.

3 Methods to Develop Passive Fitness Elements (Flexibility)

• Dynamic stretch method.
• Static stretch method.
• P.N.F method (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation).

Dynamic Method
- Use of swinging movements.
- Movement resisting muscles will stretch as a result of action-performing muscles work (Agonist/Antagonist relations).

Advantages:
- Suitable to group training.
- Effective in developing specific flexibility.
- Less boring.

Disadvantages:
- Lack of movement range control.
- Rise of tissue and muscle tension and as a result resistance to stretch occurs by operating the 'Stretch Reflex', as of such- Damaging the ability to lengthen the muscle.

Static Method
- Use of external force to the edge of the stretch range limit.
- Raising the muscle qualification stimulation threshold, resulting in reduction of the muscle's sensitivity to stretch and subsiding the reaction of reflexive contraction.

Advantages:
- Safe system which bypasses the 'Stretch Reflex'.
- Controllable.
- Requires less energy to perform.

Manner of Flexibility Workout
Slow performance, relaxation of the muscle, stopping for several seconds.

- A dynamic stretch operates the 'Qualification Reflex' which specifies in recruitment of motor units.
- A long passive stretch operates the 'Golgi Mechanism' which relaxes motor units.
- Flexibility is reduced during morning hours.

The Muscle Qualification Mechanism- Located at skeletal muscles, parallel to muscle fibers, sensitive to muscle length changes.
The Stretch Reflex- Mechanism which protects the muscle from potentially damaging stretch. Reaction- Hard involuntary contraction as a prevention of further stretch.
Golgi Organelles- Located at the tendon-muscle passage, inside the tendons. Sensitive to muscle contraction changes, reducing muscle weariness.

P.N.F Method
An assembly of methods which are making use of reflexive mechanisms (Golgi, Qualification) which are involved in muscle activity.
Combining external force to passive stretch and resistance with isometric contraction of the muscle.

Major Steps in PNF Workout
1. Stretching with a partner.
2. Contraction against partner's resistance.
3. Repetitive stretching, deeper with a partner.

Hold-Relax Method
- Passive stretch up to stretch range limit point, 6-8 seconds pause. After pause, trainee performs maximal isometric contraction against external resistance for 6-8 seconds of the muscle he/she wishes to stretch.
- Gradual isometric contraction.
- 3-4 repetitions.
- The highest tension caused in the tendon operates the Golgi organelle which causes muscle relaxation.

Reciprocal Innervation Method- Mutual Stimulation
- Passive stretch by the partner's aid up to movement range limit, pause for several seconds during stretch.
- Isometric contraction of the antagonist muscle. Relaxation of the antagonist muscle.
- Repetition of all stages, incorporating newly-reached movement range.

Advantages of PNF
- Reaching a larger movement range.
- Contractions contribute to muscle strengthening and as of such- Stability of the joint.

Disadvantages of PNF
- Risk of increased injuries to tissues due to overstretching.
- Closing of air passages which can cause the 'Vallslava Effect'.

Further Precautions & Emphasis During Flexibility Training and Stretching
- It is recommended to start these types of training at an early age (Genetic potential reached at the age of 12).
- These workouts reduce connective tissues viscosity.
- These workouts lower the inner-muscle tension.
- These workouts raise the stimulation threshold of the muscle qualification.
- These workouts improve the nervous responses.
- Strength training does not damage flexibility and often even improves it, as long as the entire working range of the muscle is applied.
- Passive stretching is preferred over active stretching.
- Dynamic stretching will come at the specific preparation stage, after passive stretching.
- It is recommended to perform a warm up before stretching.
- One is supposed to stretch to the point of pain.
- At younger ages it is applicable to further use dynamic flexibility.
- One should perform 5-15 repetitions, with a tension time span between 6-30 seconds.
- One can improve flexibility at all ages, however less in older ages.

Training in the Elastic or Plastic Range?
Training in the Elastic Range
- Stretching the muscle in preparation to physical activity.
- Stretching to the point of discomfort/pain.
- Static stretch of 8-12 seconds, relaxation of 4-6 seconds.
- Repetition of 4-6 times per workout.

*The change is temporary.

Training in the Plastic Range
- Creating constant and prolonging change.
- Increasing tension in the point of discomfort/pain.
- Sense of light to medium pain.
- Static stretch of 10-20 seconds
- 4 times a week.

Nutrition

Effects of Nutrition in Various Sport Branches

• Refilling of energy resources in preparation to strain.
• Postponing the stage of tiredness.
• Reducing muscle damages.
• Improving performances.
• Maintaining immunity system functions.
• Allowing synthesis of Glycogen and Protein within end of workout.
• Repairing damages done to muscle system.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate = Sugar (Do not be confused with the commercial product 'White Sugar'). Prime food element.
Caloric value= 4Kcal per 1 gram.
Glycogen storage= Conservative matter. Exists in Liver, bloodstream and cell cytoplasm.
Divided by molecule size:
- Uni-sugar / Duo-sugar (Sweet flavor, for it is dissolved into uni-sugars).
- Multi-sugar- Composed of both Uni-sugars and Duo-sugars. Otherwise known as 'Complex Carbs'. Examples: Rice, Pasta, Bread.

Normative blood-sugar level: 70-110 milliliters.
Glycemic Response- Rise in Glucose in the bloodstream (Usually after a Carb-enriched meal).
Hyperglycemia- Too high of a Glucose concentration.
Hypoglycemia- Too little of a Glucose concentration.

Uni-Sugars
Fructose- The fruits type sugar. Very sweet.
Galactose- Byproduct of Lactose, which is found in milk & dairies.

Duo-Sugars
Sucrose- Glucose+Fructose.
Lactose- Glucose+Galactose.

Multi-Sugars
Starch- Plant-found conservative matter.
Cellulose- Plant cell membrane constructive element.
Glycogen- Serves as conservative matter in living tissue.

Proteins
Also known as 'Polypeptides'.
Caloric value = 4Kcal per 1 gram.
GDP Breakdown = Amino Acids. The amino acids constitute a chain of globular form, which is foreign to the body. Each chain that enters is broken down to Free Amino Acids, and then body-type Amino Acid Chains are being formed, with the aid of the peptide bonds.
Sequence/Order of those chains is determined from birth, according to specific gene, race and sex. Even between 2 humans of the same people (Of the same bloodline, even) have different AA gene chains.
In most cases, AA gene chains contain 20 AA each.

Most plants and other food sources produce the 20 necessary AA. Essential Amino Acids refers to AA which are not able to be synthesized by humans themselves.
The breakdown of protein to AA occurs in the digestive state, which from then on is divided to many tasks of the body- Biosynthesis, conversion to Glucose, serving as residue for Citric Acid Cycle, etc.
Keep in mind that only protein (More precisely- AA) can repair and restore muscle tears, and perform Hypertrophy.
Protein can transform to Carbohydrates (Glucose through 'Gluconeogensis') and to Fats, but that is never true for the opposite direction.

Fats
Lipids. These are considered compounds which are dissolved quickly in organic solvents, however not in liquids.
Caloric value = 9Kcal per 1 gram.
GDP Breakdown = Glycerol and Fatty Acids.
Possible physics state in room temperature = Liquid or Solid. To determine which are liquid and which are solid, one must search for the structure and composition of the given lipid.

Related 'Fats' names: Oils, Fats. Oils generally describe liquid lipids, while Fats describe solid lipids (All at room temperature).

Hydrogen Atoms
The number of hydrogen atoms differs from one Fat molecule to another, resulting in two varying fat groups: Saturated, and Unsaturated.
To the base of the carbon atoms exist bonds of hydrogen atoms. Each 1 C(Carbon) is attached to 2 H(Hydrogen).
Under the rule of 1C/2H, a fat molecule is considered to be saturated, Meaning the carbon atoms are bonded to the maximal number of hydrogen atoms.
In case of 1C/1H, allowing 1 free Carbon bond to remain loose, these fat molecules are considered to be Monounsaturated fatty acids.
In case of 2C/2H+ (More than 1 double hydrogen bond), these fat molecules are termed Polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Difference between saturated and unsaturated fats lies in their energy content and their core melting point.
The fewer the Carbon-Hydrogen bonds, the less energy is required during metabolism. Thus, unsaturated fats are healthier to the body.
What is more, saturated fats have a tendency to create large groups, condensed together, freezing as a solid union in room temperature.

Myth Debunking

1. Myth: Eat frequently to "Stoke the metabolic fire"

Truth

Each time one eats, metabolic rate increases slightly for a few hours. Paradoxically, it takes energy to break down and absorb energy. This is the 'Thermic Effect of Food' (TEF). The amount of energy expended is directly proportional to the amount of calories and nutrients consumed in the meal.
Let us assume that we are measuring TEF during 24 hours in a diet of 2700 kcal with 40% protein, 40% carbohydrate and 20% fat.
We run three different trials where the only thing we change is the the meal frequency.

A- Three meals: 900 kcal per meal.
B- Six meals: 450 kcal per meal.
C- Nine meals: 300 kcal per meal.

What we would find is a different pattern in regards to TEF. Example "A" would yield a larger and long lasting boost in metabolic rate that would gradually taper off until the next meal came around; TEF would show a "peak and valley"-pattern. "C" would yield a very weak but consistent boost in metabolic rate; an even pattern. "B" would be somewhere in between.
However, at the end of the 24-hour period, or as long as it would take to assimilate the nutrients, there would be no difference in TEF. The total amount of energy expended by TEF would be identical in each scenario. Meal frequency does not affect total TEF.
You cannot "trick" the body in to burning more or less calories by manipulating meal frequency.

2. Myth: Eat smaller meals more often for hunger control

Truth

Given the importance of finding the most favorable meal pattern for hunger and appetite control, there is a surprising scarcity of studies on the topic. The most widely cited study is one where obese males were fed 33% of their daily calorie requirement ("Pre-load") in either one single meal or five meals before being allowed to eat ad libitum five hours later (Meaning as much as they desired).

A: One single meal was consumed. 5 hours later they were free to eat as much as they desired, "Buffet" style.

B: Same setup as above. However, the single meal was now split into five smaller meals, which were consumed every hour leading up to the ad libitum meal.

The results showed that subjects undergoing "A" ate 27% more calories when given the ad libitum meal. The same setup was used by the same researchers on lean males and showed similar results. However, upon closer scrutiny it is clear how little real world application those results have. The Macrocomposition of the pre-load was 70% Carbs, 15% Fat and 15% Protein; Given as pasta, ice cream and orange juice. The situation created was highly artificial and abnormal. Who sits around nibbling on pasta and ice cream, sipping orange juice, every hour leading up to a regular meal?
There's no doubt that meal frequency is highly individual. However, absolute statements claiming smaller meals are superior for hunger and appetite control are untrue and are based on studies using methods that greatly differed from real-world meal patterns. Current research with a normal meal pattern and protein intakes that are closer to what can be seen in a typical non-retarded diet, suggests superior appetite control when eating fewer and larger meals.

3. Myth: Maintain a steady supply of amino acids by eating protein every 2-3 hours. The body can only absorb 30 grams of protein in one sitting

Truth

Whenever you hear something really crazy you need to ask yourself if it makes sense from an evolutionary perspective. It's a great way to quickly determine if something may be valid or if it's more likely a steaming pile of horseshit. This myth is a great example of the latter. Do you think we would be here today if our bodies could only make use of 30 grams of protein per meal?

The simple truth is that more protein just takes a longer time to digest and be utilized. For some concrete numbers, digestion of a standard meal is still incomplete after five hours. Amino acids are still being released into your bloodstream and absorbed into muscles. You are still "anabolic." This is a fairly standard "Average Joe"-meal: 600 kcal, 75 g carbs, 37 g protein and 17 g fat. Best of all? This was after eating pizza, a refined food that should be quickly absorbed relatively speaking.

Think about this for a second. How long do you think a big steak, with double the protein intake of the above example, and a big pile of veggies would last you? More than 10 hours, that's for sure. Meal composition plays an important role in absorption speed, especially when it comes to amino acids. Type of protein, fiber, carbohydrates and prior meals eaten all affect how long you'll have amino acids released and being taken up by tissues after meals.

4. Myth: Fasting causes muscle loss

Truth

This myth hinges on people's belief it's important to have a steady stream of amino acids available to not lose muscle. As I explained earlier, protein is absorbed at a very slow rate. After a large high-protein meal, amino acids trickle into your blood stream for several hours.

No studies have looked at this in a context that is relevant to most of us. For example, by examining amino acid appearance in the blood and tissue utilization of amino acids after a large steak, veggies and followed up with some cottage cheese with berries for dessert. That's easily 100 grams of protein and a typical meal for those that follow the Leangains approach. We are left to draw our own conclusions based on what we know; that a modest amount of casein, consumed as a liquid on an empty stomach is still releasing amino acids after 7 hours. With this in mind it's no stretch to assume that 100 grams of protein as part of a mixed meal at the end of the day would still be releasing aminos for 16-24 hours.

Few studies has examined the effects of regular fasting on muscle retention and compared it to a control diet. None of them are relevant to how most people fast and some are marred by flaws in study design and methodology. Like this study which showed increased muscle gain and fat loss, with no weight training or change in calorie intake, just by changing meal frequency. While I would love to cite that study as proof for the benefits of intermittent fasting, body composition was measured by BIA, which is notoriously imprecise.

Only in prolonged fasting does protein catabolism become an issue. This happens when stored liver glycogen becomes depleted. In order to maintain blood glucose, conversion of amino acids into glucose must occur (DNG: de novo glucogenesis). This happens gradually and if amino acids are not available from food, protein must be taken from bodily stores such as muscle. Cahill looked at the contribution of amino acids to DNG after a 100 gram glucose load. He found that amino acids from muscle contributed 50% to glucose maintenance after 16 hours and almost 100% after 28 hours (when stored liver glycogen was fully depleted). Obviously, for someone who eats a high protein meal before fasting, this is a moot point as you will have plenty of aminos available from food during the fast.

**More possible myths you have in mind may be asked and I will attempt to answer if I can.

just skimmed, all of this i learned in school. good read lads, maybe h&fer's can take some knowledge from here.
tracked for review

This post was edited by IrishJoe on Dec 5 2010 09:18am

Needs to be added to unified sticky or be a stickie of its own.

Good stuff.

^^

E: Epic. Will add marijuana post to this instead of a thread(if okay with OP). Worth my time. Thanks Synonym.

If you can't back up your arguments/views with facts and scientific studies. Don't even post them.

The cut and paste is surely just to support his arguments. God Rapdawg, are you the biggest Narcissist on here or egomaniac?

you but shit man....worst than me.

Back to lurking.

@Rapdawg, KK, just making sure my psychoanalysis is up to par. Thanks rap.

This post was edited by Nozguleth on Dec 5 2010 09:59am

Mostly standard textbook information. Some of it is quite outdated and incorrect (a large amount of the section on sleep, which is the only thing I bothered reading).

For example, a person can gain enough sleep with just two hours every 24 hour period via a polyphasic sleep cycle.

Also, as most of this is pretty much copy pasted out of textbooks, it is just a consensus of the majorities opinion.

@Noz: Yeah, society defines me as narcissistic, but I do not attach labels to myself.

@Noz2: No problem, although I doubt you can properly asses my personality.

This post was edited by RapDawg on Dec 5 2010 10:00am

It's also answering the majority of the stupid questions asked in this forum.

True, but I doubt the people asking those stupid questions will bother reading this thread, as their questions can already be answered via a quick & simple google search.



My point exactly.

This post was edited by RapDawg on Dec 5 2010 10:01am